Graphicons and Computer-Mediated Communication: Applications and Functions of Emojis, Emoticons, and Stickers in Text-Based Interactions and Mobile Messaging Apps Across Cultural Contexts

Document Type : researcher

Author
Hossein Hassani
Assistant Professor of Cyberspace Studies, RICAC
10.22034/scm.2024.437580.1723
Abstract
The purpose of the paper is to systematically review the studies on the role of emojis in instant messaging apps. The most critical weakness of CMCs is the impossibility of exchanging non-verbal cues, which can prevent the transmission of emotions. One of the functions of graphicons is to act as a substitute for some nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions and emotions. In the article, the use, functions, effects, and factors affecting the application of these communication elements in mobile textual communication from 2010 to 2023 are studied using the meta-synthesis method. After the initial search, 152 articles were collected from valid databases, and finally, after the screening, 51 articles were analyzed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria defined in the research goal. This study showed that emojis are currently the main element of non-verbal communication in mobile messaging apps. Age, gender, and cultural and technological context also play an essential role in the use and interpretation of the meaning of emojis. Overall, this study showed that emojis have found new and distinct functions in interpersonal communication that go beyond compensating for the lack of nonverbal communication cues.
Keywords
Computer-mediated-communication
nonverbal communication
emoji
instant messaging
Smartphones
Subjects

  •  

     

    • Adler, R. B. and Rodman, G. R. (2009). Understanding human communication (10th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
    • Ahn, W., Park, J. & Han, K. (2011). Emoticons convey emotion in CMC; BCS-HCI '11: Proceedings of the 25th BCS Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. July 2011. Pages 429–430
    • Al Rashdi, F. (2018). Functions of emojis in WhatsApp interaction among Omanis. Discourse Context Media (2018). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.dcm.2018.07.001
    • Aleria A. Pfeifer, A.A. et al. (2022). Do all facial emojis communicate emotion? The impact of facial emojis on perceived sender emotion and text processing. Computers in Human Behavior. Volume 126, 2022,107016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107016.
    • Amsel, T.T. (2019). An Urban Legend Called: “The 7/38/55 Ratio Rule”. European Polygraph. Volume 13 • 2019 • Number 2 (48), DOI: 10.2478/ep-2019-0007
    • An , J. et al. (2018). Factors Influencing Emoji Usage in Smartphone Mediated Communications. iConference 2018, LNCS 10766. pp. 423–428, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78105-1_46
    • Aromataris, E., Pearson, A. (2014). The Systematic Review. AJN, American Journal of Nursing. March 2014. Volume 114 - Issue 3 - p 53-58.

     doi: 10.1097/01.NAJ.0000444496.24228.2c

    • Bai, Q., et al. (2019). A Systematic Review of Emoji: Current Research and Future Perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology. Vol. 10, Article 2221, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02221
    • Berlin: Springer.
    • Butterworth, S.E., et al. (2019). Sender Gender Influences Emoji Interpretation in Text Messages. Psychol. 10:784. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00784
    • Cantoni, L., & Tardini, S. (2012). Internet. (Translated by Saeid Reza Ameli et al.). Tehran: Amir Kabir Publication [in Persian]
    • Cesar dos Reis, J., et al. (2018). Intenticons: Participatory selection of emoticons for communication of intentions. Computers in Human Behavior.

    doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.046

    • Chad C. Tossell, C.C., et al. (2012). A longitudinal study of emoticon use in text messaging from smartphones. Computers in Human Behavior. Volume 28, Issue 2. Pages 659-663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.11.012
    • Culture and Society in the Networked Age. edited by Jesús Romero-Trillo, 7–26.
    • Denyer, D., & Tranfield, D. (2009). Producing a systematic review. In D. A. Buchanan & A. Bryman (Eds.), The Sage handbook of organizational research methods (pp. 671–689). Sage Publications Ltd.
    • Dresner, E., C. Herring, S. C. (2010). Functions of the Nonverbal in CMC: Emoticons and Illocutionary Force. Communication Theory. Volume20, Issue3, Pages 249-268
    • Elder, A. M (2018). "What Words Can’t Say: Emoji and other non-verbal elements of technologically-mediated communication". Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society. https://doi.org/10.1108/JICES-08-2017-0050
    • Evans, V. )2017( The Emoji Code: How Smiley Faces, Love Hearts and Thumbs Up Are Changing The Way We Communicate. London: Michael O’Mara Books Limited.
    • Ge-Stadnyk, J. (2021). Communicative functions of emoji sequences in the context of self-presentation: A comparative study of Weibo and Twitter users. Discourse & Communication, 15(4), 369387. https://doi.org/10.1177/17504813211002038
    • Goggin, G. (2021). Apps: From Mobile Phones to Digital Lives. Cambridge & Medford: Polity.
    • Herring, S.C., Dainas, A.R. (2020). Gender and Age Influences on Interpretation of Emoji Functions. ACM Trans. Soc. Comput. 3, 2, Article 10 (April 2020), 26 pages.
    • Huang, A.H., Yen, D.C., Zhang, X. (2008). Exploring the potential effects of emoticons. Information & Management. 45 (2008) 466–473
    • Hwang, H.S. (2014). Gender Differences in Emoticon Use on Mobile Text Messaging: Evidence from a Korean Sample. Int J Journalism Mass Comm. 1:107. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.15344/2349-2635/2014/107
    • In Yearbook of Corpus Linguistics and Pragmatics. 2016: Global Implications for
    • Ip, A. (2004).The Impact of Emoticons on Affect Interpretation in Instant Messaging, http://www.amysmile.com/doc/emoticon_paper.pdf
    • Isabelle Boutet, I, et al. (2021). Emojis influence emotional communication, social attributions, and information processing. Computers in Human Behavior. Volume 119,2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106722.
    • Jones, L.L., et al. (2020). Sex differences in emoji use, familiarity, and valence. Computers in Human Behavior (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/ chb.2020.106305.
    • Kaye, L.K., et al. (2021). How emotional are emoji?: Exploring the effect of emotional valence on the processing of emoji stimuli. Computers in Human Behavior. Volume 116,106648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106648.
    • Kaye, L.K., Wall, H. J., Malone, S.A. (2016). Turn that frown upside-down”: A contextual account of emoticon usage on different virtual platforms. Computers in Human Behavior. Volume 60, Pages 463-467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.088.
    • Khan, Kh., et al. (2003). Five Steps to Conducting a Systematic Review. Journal of The Royal Society of Medicine. Volume 96 March 2003
    • Koch, T.K., Romero, P. Stachl, C. (2022).Age and gender in language, emoji, and emoticon usage in instant messages. Computers in Human Behavior.Volume 126, 2022, 106990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106990.
    • Konrad, A., Herring, S. C., Choi, D. (2020). Sticker and Emoji Use in Facebook Messenger: Implications for Graphicon Change. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. Volume 25, Issue 3, May 2020. Pages 217–235. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmaa003
    • Krohn, F. B. (2014). A Generational Approach To Using Emoticons As Nonverbal Communication. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication. 2004;34(4):321-328. doi:10.2190/9EQH-DE81-CWG1-QLL9
    • Lee, j. Y., et al. (2016). Smiley Face: Why We Use Emoticon Stickers in Mobile Messaging. MobileHCI '16: Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services. Adjunct September. 2016 Pages 760–766. https://doi.org/10.1145/2957265.2961858
    • Liu, L., Hsu, Y., Zhang, J. et al. (2020). A study on the embarrassment of senders who missend emojis with opposite meanings on social apps: taking WeChat as an example. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica. 33, 20 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-020-00159-4
    • Lo, Sh.(2008). The Nonverbal Communication Functions of Emoticons in Computer-Mediated Communication. Cyberpsychology & Behavior. Volume 11, Number 5, 2008, DOI: 10.1089/cpb.2007.0132
    • Louise Anker Nexø, L.A., Jacob Strandell, J. (2020). Testing, filtering, and insinuating: Matching and attunement of emoji use patterns as non-verbal flirting in online dating. Poetics. Volume 83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2020.101477.
    • Marengo, D., Fabrizia Giannotta, F., Settanni, M. (2017). Assessing personality using emoji: An exploratory study. Personality and Individual Differences. 112 (2017) 74–78.
    • McDougald, B.R., Carpenter, E.D., Mayhorn, Ch.B (2011). Emoticons: What does this one mean?; Proceedings of the Human Fators and Ergonmics Society. 55th Annual Meeting – 2011.
    • Prada, M., et al. (2018). Motives, Frequency and Attitudes toward Emoji and Emoticon Use. Telematics and Informatics. doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.tele.2018.06.005
    • Riordan, M. A. (2017). Emojis as Tools for Emotion Work: Communicating Affect in Text Messages. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 36(5), 549–567. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X17704238
    • Sampietro, A. (2020). Use and Interpretation of Emoji in Electronic Mediated Communication: A Survey. Visual Communication Quarterly. 27:1, 27-39, DOI:10.1080/15551393.2019.1707086
    • Sandelowski, M. & Barroso, L. (2007). Handbook for Synthesizing Qualitative Research. New York: Springer
    • Seargeant, Ph. (2019). The Emoji Revolution: How Technology Is Shaping The Future of Communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    • Shah, R., & Tewari, R. (2021). Mapping Emoji Usage Among Youth. Journal of Creative Communications. 16(1), 113–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973258620982541
    • Shi, X., et al. (2019). "Emoji Usage and Interpersonal Relationship in Computer-Mediated Communication". 2019 International Joint Conference on Information, Media and Engineering (IJCIME). 2019, pp. 262-266, doi: 10.1109/IJCIME49369.2019.00059. Takahashi K, Oishi T, Shimada M. (2017). Is ☺ Smiling? Cross-Cultural Study on Recognition of Emoticon’s Emotion. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 48(10):1578-1586. doi:10.1177/0022022117734372
    • Vogel, C., & Janssen, J. F. (2009). Emoticonsciousness. In A. Esposito, A. Hussain, M. Marinaro, and R. Martone, Multimodal signals: Cognitive and algorithmic issues. (pp. 271–287). Berlin: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-12397-9_2
    • Weiß, M., Bille, D., Rodrigues, J., & Hewig, J. (2020). Age-Related Differences in Emoji Evaluation. Experimental aging research, 46(5), 416–432. https://doi.org/10.1080/0361073X.2020.1790087
    • Wirza, Y. et al. (2019). The Difference in Emoji Usage Between Genders. Proceedings of the Twelfth Conference on Applied Linguistics (CONAPLIN 2019). 232-236.
    • Wiseman, S., Gould, S. (2018). Repurposing Emoji for Personalised Communication: Why means “I love you”. Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. DOI:10.1145/3173574.3173726
    • Wiseman, S., Gould., S.J.J (2018). Repurposing Emoji for Personalised Communication: Why means “I love you”. Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Association for Computing Machinery. New York. 152, 1–10. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1145/3173574.3173726
    • Ying Tang, Y., & New, K.F. (2019). Emoticon, Emoji, and Sticker Use in Computer-Mediated Communication: A Review of Theories and Research Findings. International Journal of Communication. 13(2019), 2457–2483
    • Yus, F. (2016). “Towards a Cyberpragmatics of Mobile Instant Messaging.”
    • Yus, F. (2016). Smartphone Communication Interactions in the App Ecosystem. London & New York: Routledge.
    • Zhou, R., Hentschel, J., Kumar, N. (2017). Goodbye Text, Hello Emoji: Mobile Communication on WeChat in China. Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. DOI: 10.1145/3025453.3025800
Society Culture Media
Volume 13, Issue 51
Summer 2024
Pages 249-274

  • Receive Date 10 July 2023
  • Revise Date 10 August 2023
  • Accept Date 25 January 2024