"Sacred Feudalism"?, The Economic Structure and Organization of the Khalidi Naqshbandi Sufi Order in Sunni Kurdish Regions of Iran

Document Type : researcher

Authors
Sara Shariati Mazinani 1
Jamil Mafakheri Bashmagh 2
1 Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Tehran and Specialist in Sociology of Religion
2 PhD student in Economic Sociology, University of Tehran
10.22034/scm.2025.558162.1965
Abstract
The Naqshbandi Sufi order, as an influential religious movement, has had a profound impact on the cultural, social, political, and economic dimensions of Sunni Kurdish regions in Iran. Some scholars have viewed Sufism as a factor contributing to societal backwardness, while others, such as Yavuz in Turkey, have considered it a driver of economic development.



This study employs content analysis and examines key documents and texts of the Naqshbandi order, along with in-depth interviews with Sheikhs, Khalifas, and followers (murids) . It aims to analyze the theories of scholars like Ibn Khaldun, Weber, Turner, and van Bruinessen regarding Sufism and to investigate the economic organization of the Khalidi Naqshbandi order in Kurdistan.

. Based on this premise, the researchers sought to examine this issue more deeply.



Within the structure of the order, the Sheikh or Qutb is a sacred guide whose followers are perpetually under his authority; they cannot undertake any action without his consent. The benefit of the Sheikh for the murids is solely spiritual and otherworldly, whereas the murids provide substantial material benefits for the Sheikhs. The murids essentially serve as a unpaid labor force, expected to work on the Sheikh's lands with love and without objection, with the entire produce belonging to the Khanqah and the Sheikh.



Although the Naqshbandi order was initially based on non-hereditary spiritual authority, the role of Murshid (guide) eventually became a familial and hereditary matter. "Sacred Feudalism" is the overarching concept or conclusion derived for this economic organization.

Highlights

 

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Eymal B, Demmallino, M.Saleh S .Ali, Abd. Qadir Gassing, Munsi Lamper, La Nalefo& other .2017. "Sufism and Behavior of Maritime Economic Community (case study on Pakkaja community in south Sulawesi) ". Journal of Sustainable Development. Vol. 9, 2016.136-147.

Van Bruinessen, Martin .1992. Agha, Shaikh and State. The Social ND Political Structures of Kurdistan". Zed books Ltd. london n1 9bu, UK

Mayring,p. & U. Flick,. & Kardoff,E. And Steinke, I. 2004. " Qualtive Content Analysis,. A Companion to Qualitative Research",. London: Sage.

Machlis. Elisheva .2019. "Reevaluating Sectarianism in light sufi Islam: The case-studies of the Naqshbandiyya and Qadirriyya in Syria and Iraq". Truman institute. Hebrew University.sociology of Islam. 1-21.

Solaimani, Kamal .2019. "A Kurdish Sufi Master and His Christian Neighbors". The Journal of Critical Global South Studies. Vol.2, No. 1,..Published by :Pluto Journal.

Svante E. Cornell .2020. "The Naqshbandi-Khalidi order and Political Islam in Turkey". Hudson Institute. 3/15/2020.studies program of central asia.

Tahir. Sayyid .2017. "Islamic Economic and Prospect for Theoretical and Empirical Research". Islamic econ, vol.30 No.1, PP:3-20(JANNUARY 2017).

Obadia, Lionel (2019). Sociology of Economy and Religion. Translated by Alireza Khodami. Tehran: Naqd-e Farhang Publications. First edition. (In Persian)

 Ibn Khaldun, ‘Abd al-Rahman. (2015). The Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun (Vol. 2). Translated by Mohammad Parvin Gonabadi. Digital Publication. First edition. (In Persian)

  Bayazidi, Mahmoud. (2017). Customs and Traditions of the Kurds. Translated by Aziz Mohammadpour Dashbandi. N.p.: Miad. (In Persian)

 Besarani, Mulla Hamed (Katib al-Asrar). (2007). A Journey through Riyadh al-Mushtaqin: On the Life and Virtues of Mawlana Khalid Ziya al-Din and Shaykh ‘Uthman Siraj al-Din. First edition. (In Persian)

 Pourmohammadi Amlashi, Nasrollah, & Javanmardi, Aliyeh. (2015). “The Role and Status of the Mashayikh and the Sufi Order in Social Transformations and Contemporary History of Kurdistan.” Journal of Social and Economic History, Research Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, 4(2), 39–56. (In Persian)

 Pirbadaqi, Fatemeh. (2013). “Quantitative and Qualitative Content Analysis.” Payam-e Pajuhesh, 9(101), 27–30. (In Persian)

 Tabani, Habibollah. (2001). Ethnic Unity of the Kurds and Medes: Origin, Race, History, and Civilization of Kurdistan. Tehran: Gostareh Publications. (In Persian)

 Tabrizi, Mansoureh. (2012). “Qualitative Content Analysis from Deductive and Inductive Approaches.” Quarterly Journal of Social Sciences, No. 64, Spring, 138–159. (In Persian)

 Thompson, Kenneth, et al. (2016). Religion and Social Structure. Translated by Ali Bahrampour & Hasan Mohaddesi. Tehran: Kavir Publications. Third edition. (In Persian)

  Tavakkoli, Mohammad Raouf. (1975). History of Sufism in Kurdistan. Electronic publication. Second edition. (In Persian)

 Afandi Arbili, Mulla ‘Ali. (2016). Siraj al-Talibin fi Manaqib Qutb al-‘Arifin Shaykh Muhammad ‘Ali Husam al-Din Naqshbandi. Edited and revised by Soran Hosami Naqshbandi. Electronic edition. (In Persian)

  Abu Bakr Khwanchah, Sepehr al-Din. (1989). Biography of the Divine Gnostic Shaykh Yusuf, Known as Shams al-Din Barhani. Center for Kurdish Culture and Literature Publishing, Salah al-Din Ayyubi Publications. First edition. (In Persian)

  Siraj al-Din Naqshbandi II, Shaykh Muhammad ‘Uthman. (2016). Siraj al-Qulub, with Additional Treatises. Edited by Amjad Imam. Istanbul: Administration of the Endowment of the Khanaqah of Shaykh ‘Uthman Siraj al-Din II. First edition. (In Persian)

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 Hezrati, Hasan, & Qanbari Sabah. (2015). “The Rule of the Dervishes in Iraqi Kurdistan (1918–1931).” Islamic History Studies, 7(27), 58–80. (In Persian)

 Turner, Bryan. (2016). Max Weber and Islam. Translated by Said Vesali. Tehran: Markaz Publications. Fourth edition. (In Persian)

 Tavakkoli, Mohammad Raouf. (1999). History of Sufism in Kurdistan. Second edition. (In Persian)

  Dawson, Leslie. (2007). Protestantism. Translated by ‘Abdolrahim Soleimani. Imam Khomeini Educational and Research Institute. First edition. (In Persian)

  Flick, Uwe. (2008). An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Translated by Hadi Jalili. Tehran: Ney Publications. First edition. (In Persian)

  Swedberg, Richard. (2018). Max Weber and Economic Sociology. Translated by Shahin Ahmadi. Tehran: Donya-ye Eqtesad Publications. First edition. (In Persian)

  Siddin, Ali. (2008). The Wearers of Wool: The Culture of Sufi Orders. Tehran: Ney Publications. First edition. (In Persian)

  Ghassemlou, Abdul Rahman. (2004). Kurdistan and the Kurds: A Political and Economic Study. Sweden: Galawêj Printing House.(in Kurdish).

  Krippendorff, Klaus. (2009). Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. Translated by Houshang Nayebi. Tehran: Ney Publications. Second edition. (In Persian)

  Creswell, John W. (2015). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches. Translated by Hasan Danaeefard & Hossein Kazemi. Tehran: Saffar Publications. Second edition. (In Persian)

  Al-Jilani, ‘Abd al-Qadir. (1990). Fath al-Rabbani. Translated by Mohammad Ja‘far Mahdavi. Ehsan Publications. First edition. (In Persian)

  Iqbal, Muhammad (Allama Iqbal Lahori). (1966). The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. Translated by Ahmad Aram. Regional Cultural Institute Publications. (In Persian)

  Marx, Karl. (1979). On the Jewish Question. Translated by A. Ofogh. (In Persian)

  Motamedi, Mahindokht. (1989). Mawlana Khalid Naqshbandi and the Followers of His Order. Pazhang Publications. First edition. (In Persian)

  Muderris,Mulla ‘Abdolkarim. (1979). Yadi Mardan (Vol. 1: Mawlana Khalid Naqshbandi). Kurdistan Publications. First edition. .(in Kurdish).

  Muderris, Mulla ‘Abdolkarim. (1983). Yadi Mardan (Vol. 2: The Naqshbandi Shaykhs of Hawraman and Some of Their Prominent Disciples). Kurdistan Publications. First edition. .(in Kurdish).

 Mawlana Ghawth Muhammad Naqshbandi. (2004). Tariqat al-Rashidin wa Hujjat al-Mustarshidin. Revised edition. (In Persian)

  Mansouri Moghaddam, Mansour. (2016). An Anthropological Study of the Hawraman Region. Cultural Heritage Office of Kurdistan Province. Research project. (In Persian)

 Van Bruinessen, Martin. (1999). Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan. Translated by Ebrahim Younesi. Tehran: Paniz Publications. (In Persian).

 Weber, Max. (2017). The Sociology of Religion. Translated by Mohsen Salasi. Tehran: Sales Publications. First edition. (In Persian).

Yavuz, Hakan. (2013). Islamic Political Identity in Contemporary Turkey. Translated by Azad Haji Agha’i. Tehran: Eshareh Publications. First edition. (In Persian).

  Afrasyaw Hawrami. (2002). The Revolt of Shaykh Sa‘id Piran and Its Consequences (Based on Documents and Ottoman Publications). Sulaymaniyah: Sardam Publishing House. .(in Kurdish).

  Rasul, Ja‘far ‘Ali. (2008). Sufism and Its Influence on the Kurdish National Liberation Movement (1880–1925). Kurdology Institute. Sulaymaniyah: Shafan Printing House. .(in Kurdish).

  Olcott, Martha Brill. (2020). The Sufi Tradition in Central Asia. Translated by ‘Abdullah Ahmad Muhammad. Kurdistan Center for Conflict and Crisis Studies. Sulaymaniyah, Iraq. .(in Kurdish).

  Khaliqi, Hussein. (1992). Kurdish Sociology. Vol. 2. Baghdad: Al-Hawadith Printing House. .(in Kurdish).

 

 

Keywords

Subjects

 
 
Eymal B, Demmallino, M.Saleh S .Ali, Abd. Qadir Gassing, Munsi Lamper, La Nalefo& other .2017. "Sufism and Behavior of Maritime Economic Community (case study on Pakkaja community in south Sulawesi) ". Journal of Sustainable Development. Vol. 9, 2016.136-147.
Van Bruinessen, Martin .1992. Agha, Shaikh and State. The Social ND Political Structures of Kurdistan". Zed books Ltd. london n1 9bu, UK
Mayring,p. & U. Flick,. & Kardoff,E. And Steinke, I. 2004. " Qualtive Content Analysis,. A Companion to Qualitative Research",. London: Sage.
Machlis. Elisheva .2019. "Reevaluating Sectarianism in light sufi Islam: The case-studies of the Naqshbandiyya and Qadirriyya in Syria and Iraq". Truman institute. Hebrew University.sociology of Islam. 1-21.
Solaimani, Kamal .2019. "A Kurdish Sufi Master and His Christian Neighbors". The Journal of Critical Global South Studies. Vol.2, No. 1,..Published by :Pluto Journal.
Svante E. Cornell .2020. "The Naqshbandi-Khalidi order and Political Islam in Turkey". Hudson Institute. 3/15/2020.studies program of central asia.
Tahir. Sayyid .2017. "Islamic Economic and Prospect for Theoretical and Empirical Research". Islamic econ, vol.30 No.1, PP:3-20(JANNUARY 2017).
Obadia, Lionel (2019). Sociology of Economy and Religion. Translated by Alireza Khodami. Tehran: Naqd-e Farhang Publications. First edition. (In Persian)
 Ibn Khaldun, ‘Abd al-Rahman. (2015). The Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun (Vol. 2). Translated by Mohammad Parvin Gonabadi. Digital Publication. First edition. (In Persian)
  Bayazidi, Mahmoud. (2017). Customs and Traditions of the Kurds. Translated by Aziz Mohammadpour Dashbandi. N.p.: Miad. (In Persian)
 Besarani, Mulla Hamed (Katib al-Asrar). (2007). A Journey through Riyadh al-Mushtaqin: On the Life and Virtues of Mawlana Khalid Ziya al-Din and Shaykh ‘Uthman Siraj al-Din. First edition. (In Persian)
 Pourmohammadi Amlashi, Nasrollah, & Javanmardi, Aliyeh. (2015). “The Role and Status of the Mashayikh and the Sufi Order in Social Transformations and Contemporary History of Kurdistan.” Journal of Social and Economic History, Research Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, 4(2), 39–56. (In Persian)
 Pirbadaqi, Fatemeh. (2013). “Quantitative and Qualitative Content Analysis.” Payam-e Pajuhesh, 9(101), 27–30. (In Persian)
 Tabani, Habibollah. (2001). Ethnic Unity of the Kurds and Medes: Origin, Race, History, and Civilization of Kurdistan. Tehran: Gostareh Publications. (In Persian)
 Tabrizi, Mansoureh. (2012). “Qualitative Content Analysis from Deductive and Inductive Approaches.” Quarterly Journal of Social Sciences, No. 64, Spring, 138–159. (In Persian)
 Thompson, Kenneth, et al. (2016). Religion and Social Structure. Translated by Ali Bahrampour & Hasan Mohaddesi. Tehran: Kavir Publications. Third edition. (In Persian)
  Tavakkoli, Mohammad Raouf. (1975). History of Sufism in Kurdistan. Electronic publication. Second edition. (In Persian)
 Afandi Arbili, Mulla ‘Ali. (2016). Siraj al-Talibin fi Manaqib Qutb al-‘Arifin Shaykh Muhammad ‘Ali Husam al-Din Naqshbandi. Edited and revised by Soran Hosami Naqshbandi. Electronic edition. (In Persian)
  Abu Bakr Khwanchah, Sepehr al-Din. (1989). Biography of the Divine Gnostic Shaykh Yusuf, Known as Shams al-Din Barhani. Center for Kurdish Culture and Literature Publishing, Salah al-Din Ayyubi Publications. First edition. (In Persian)
  Siraj al-Din Naqshbandi II, Shaykh Muhammad ‘Uthman. (2016). Siraj al-Qulub, with Additional Treatises. Edited by Amjad Imam. Istanbul: Administration of the Endowment of the Khanaqah of Shaykh ‘Uthman Siraj al-Din II. First edition. (In Persian)
  Anonymous. (2019). Commentary on the Sacred Testaments of Qutb al-‘Arifin and Ghawth al-Salikin Shaykh ‘Uthman Siraj al-Din Khalidi Naqshbandi Mujaddidi Tawili. Available via Shah ‘Uthman Telegram Channel. Open publication, January 2019. (In Persian)
 Hezrati, Hasan, & Qanbari Sabah. (2015). “The Rule of the Dervishes in Iraqi Kurdistan (1918–1931).” Islamic History Studies, 7(27), 58–80. (In Persian)
 Turner, Bryan. (2016). Max Weber and Islam. Translated by Said Vesali. Tehran: Markaz Publications. Fourth edition. (In Persian)
 Tavakkoli, Mohammad Raouf. (1999). History of Sufism in Kurdistan. Second edition. (In Persian)
  Dawson, Leslie. (2007). Protestantism. Translated by ‘Abdolrahim Soleimani. Imam Khomeini Educational and Research Institute. First edition. (In Persian)
  Flick, Uwe. (2008). An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Translated by Hadi Jalili. Tehran: Ney Publications. First edition. (In Persian)
  Swedberg, Richard. (2018). Max Weber and Economic Sociology. Translated by Shahin Ahmadi. Tehran: Donya-ye Eqtesad Publications. First edition. (In Persian)
  Siddin, Ali. (2008). The Wearers of Wool: The Culture of Sufi Orders. Tehran: Ney Publications. First edition. (In Persian)
  Ghassemlou, Abdul Rahman. (2004). Kurdistan and the Kurds: A Political and Economic Study. Sweden: Galawêj Printing House.(in Kurdish).
  Krippendorff, Klaus. (2009). Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. Translated by Houshang Nayebi. Tehran: Ney Publications. Second edition. (In Persian)
  Creswell, John W. (2015). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches. Translated by Hasan Danaeefard & Hossein Kazemi. Tehran: Saffar Publications. Second edition. (In Persian)
  Al-Jilani, ‘Abd al-Qadir. (1990). Fath al-Rabbani. Translated by Mohammad Ja‘far Mahdavi. Ehsan Publications. First edition. (In Persian)
  Iqbal, Muhammad (Allama Iqbal Lahori). (1966). The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. Translated by Ahmad Aram. Regional Cultural Institute Publications. (In Persian)
  Marx, Karl. (1979). On the Jewish Question. Translated by A. Ofogh. (In Persian)
  Motamedi, Mahindokht. (1989). Mawlana Khalid Naqshbandi and the Followers of His Order. Pazhang Publications. First edition. (In Persian)
  Muderris,Mulla ‘Abdolkarim. (1979). Yadi Mardan (Vol. 1: Mawlana Khalid Naqshbandi). Kurdistan Publications. First edition. .(in Kurdish).
  Muderris, Mulla ‘Abdolkarim. (1983). Yadi Mardan (Vol. 2: The Naqshbandi Shaykhs of Hawraman and Some of Their Prominent Disciples). Kurdistan Publications. First edition. .(in Kurdish).
 Mawlana Ghawth Muhammad Naqshbandi. (2004). Tariqat al-Rashidin wa Hujjat al-Mustarshidin. Revised edition. (In Persian)
  Mansouri Moghaddam, Mansour. (2016). An Anthropological Study of the Hawraman Region. Cultural Heritage Office of Kurdistan Province. Research project. (In Persian)
 Van Bruinessen, Martin. (1999). Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan. Translated by Ebrahim Younesi. Tehran: Paniz Publications. (In Persian).
 Weber, Max. (2017). The Sociology of Religion. Translated by Mohsen Salasi. Tehran: Sales Publications. First edition. (In Persian).
Yavuz, Hakan. (2013). Islamic Political Identity in Contemporary Turkey. Translated by Azad Haji Agha’i. Tehran: Eshareh Publications. First edition. (In Persian).
  Afrasyaw Hawrami. (2002). The Revolt of Shaykh Sa‘id Piran and Its Consequences (Based on Documents and Ottoman Publications). Sulaymaniyah: Sardam Publishing House. .(in Kurdish).
  Rasul, Ja‘far ‘Ali. (2008). Sufism and Its Influence on the Kurdish National Liberation Movement (1880–1925). Kurdology Institute. Sulaymaniyah: Shafan Printing House. .(in Kurdish).
  Olcott, Martha Brill. (2020). The Sufi Tradition in Central Asia. Translated by ‘Abdullah Ahmad Muhammad. Kurdistan Center for Conflict and Crisis Studies. Sulaymaniyah, Iraq. .(in Kurdish).
  Khaliqi, Hussein. (1992). Kurdish Sociology. Vol. 2. Baghdad: Al-Hawadith Printing House. .(in Kurdish).
 
 
Society Culture Media
Volume 14, Issue 56
Autumn 2025
Pages 11-50

  • Receive Date 08 November 2025
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